Liminality and the Isoma Ritual free essay sample

The Isoma ritual is a corrective ritual used to remedy a womans inability to produce children, a condition commonly known as lufwisha, meaning to give birth to a dead child (16) as well as the constant dying of children. Lufwisha is thought to be caused by angry shades that inflict the condition upon the would-be mother, because she has forgotten direct ascendants as well as the immediate progenetrices of their matrikin (13). soma, therefore, is used so that the afflicted woman, being able to once again remember the offended shade(s), will cease to be the angry shades victim nd thus have the ailment affecting her fertility cease to exist. This ritual consists of three parts: phase one consists of Ilembi, where the victim is separated from the profane world; the second, known as Kunkunka, isolates her from secular life; finally, the third part, Ku-tumbuka, consists of a festive dance to celebrate the ending of the shades affliction and the victims ability to once again produce childr en. We will write a custom essay sample on Liminality and the Isoma Ritual or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Before the Ilembi phase of the ritual can begin, the husband of the woman (if there is one) builds his wife a grass hut outside approximately a dozen huts, onstituting the Ndembu village, that will be used during the second phase of the ritual. The attending doctor adept, led by the senior, collects the necessary medicines with symbolic purposes to treat her during the ritual, including a red cock and white pullet, supplied by the husband and the wifes matrikin. The doctors search and locate the burrow of a giant rat or ant-bear, and upon finding one, address the animal as it represents the troika of the afflicting agencies, including the witch, shade, and ikishi (22). After this, they begin to prepare the hole for the ritual by igging into the hole, forming a tunnel (ikela dakuhanuka) big enough for a person to pass through to another hole or opening, the first entrance being hot to represent the animal or witch, and the second hole representing the cooling down stage or domesticating. This hole is known as ku-fomwisha or ku-fomona. The area surrounding the holes are prepped by men and women in symbolically different ways; a senior adept places a piece of calabash near the first hole, while female adepts place some edible roots from their gardens, such as cassava rhizomes and weet potato tubers, which represent the muJimba, or body, of the patient. The contributions of women, especially those of the patients matrilineage, are significant to the ritual process. Finally, a ring (chipangu) is placed around the ritual site to create the sacred space necessary for the ritual, establishing a realm of order. During the ritual phase, the lufwisha-affected woman must enter the hole of life and pass through the tunnel, entering into the hole of death, where she is sprinkled with cold and hot medicine by a doctor and his assistant (29). The womans husband, tanding to the right of her, does this as well. After being splashed with medicine, she enters the tunnel once more, and her husband follows behind her (31). Together, the husband and wife are nearly naked, wearing waist cloths, to represent that they are both simultaneously like infants as well as the dead. When the woman first enters the tunnel, she does so holding the white pullet to against her left breast, which represents the place where a child is held as well as the pureness and the life and death. Near the end of this stage, the red cock is sacrificed, representing the ystical misfortune and pain caused to the woman, or chisaku. Following the cocks beheading, the couple is again splashed with cold and hot medicine, followed by the pouring of water over them in a 2:1 ratio. While the final splashing continues, male adepts, standing at the right, and female adepts, left, sing the initiation and great life-crisis rites songs of the Ndembu people. At the end, the couple is secluded in the seclusion hut where the wife continues to hold the white pullet until it lays its first egg. Occasionally, they sing mwanami yaya punkila, the Isoma song accompanied by waying dances called kupunJila, representing the style of Mvmengl ikishi as well as the contraction of an abortive labor. The couple, then, is once more thought to be able to procreate, having been reborn in the community. While in the luminal phase of the ritual, the couple symbolically represents life and death, living and dying, as well as birth, death, and rebirth. While passing through the tunnels, the couple is no longer considered alive or dead- rather, they are passing through these phases between the world of the living and the dead. They re both symbolically represented as corpses and infants to symbolize this difference between the living and the dead, for they are neither and both at the same time. Their rank and status as members of the community are therefore stripped from them- symbolically, they must be reborn at the end of the ritual before they are to retake their place within the group, the affliction preventing fertility being removed. It is through this stripping of their rank, social ties, and status amongst the living and the dead that they are thought to be reborn and rejoin society, renewed and ideally ble to once more procreate once the shades affliction has been removed Turner describes the condition of liminality as being betwixt and between the positions assigned and arrayed by law, custom, convention, and ceremonial (95). Those fitting this are ambiguous, because they elude the classifications assigned to people within relative, stable states of being within a culturally defined setting. Thus liminalitys ambiguous attributes are expressed culturally through symbols as well as ritualistic traditions where liminality is compared to death, to being in the womb, to nvisibility, to darkness, to bisexuality, to wilderness, and to an eclipse of the sun or moon. Liminal entities themselves are thought to possess nothing within the phase of liminality. These entities, often neophytes in initiation or those undergoing puberty rites, may be disguised as monsters, wear only a strip of clothing, or even go naked, to demonstrate that as liminal beings they have no status, property, insignia, secular clothing indicating rank or role, position in a kinship system†in short, nothing that may distinguish them from their fellow neophytes or initiands. These initiands, if there are more than one, often bond during their period of liminality together; during such rites, they must be modest and passive while listening to their instructors commands, facing punishment as necessary as they prepare for the transition into the next phase of their lives, returning to a more stable, culturally safe condition. Communitas is Turners preferred term to the sense of community developed amongst the spirit of solidarity and equality within a group, which can be applied to those undergoing a luminal transition together. Turner uses the term communita to distinguish [the] modality of social relationship[s] from an area of common hold sacred attributes in some variety. However, the sacredness of these offices is acquired during rites de passage, where members undergo transitions from one position to the next and are thus stripped of their previous status. Through these rites de passage, members within a communita are able to reach an equal level socially. The difference between liminality and communitas, then, is that one undergoes a period of liminality before he rejoins the communita as an equal. Liminality reflects a tateless, instable phase of transitioning where the individual is no longer a part of his past status and has yet to become part of the status he will hold following the rite, while communitas reflects the stripping of these titles and the social harmony established between individuals who normally would not be seen as equals in society. According to Turner, those within the realm of liminality are often thought of as sexless and anonymous, where members of both sex are dressed similarly and referred to with the same term (102-103). He goes on to say that symbolically, all ttributes that distinguish categories and groups in the structured social order are here in abeyance; the neophytes are merely entities in transition, as yet without place or position. These entities are often submissive and silent while submitting to the authority of the entire community, becoming a blank slate (tabula rasa) on which the knowledge and wisdom of the group pertaining to the new status is imparted. The idea is that they must be prepared for their new position in society by that society. As Turner states, The powers that shape the neophytes in liminality for the ncumbency of new status are felt, in rites all over the world, to be more than human powers, though they are invoked and channeled by the representatives of the community (106), showing that liminal entities are the products of the societies to which they belong. By these specifications, college students are in a stage of liminality, where the lines between adolescence and adulthood are blurred; the students are not considered adults by society, yet they arent seen as children. Undergrad years are marked by social changes as students make their way through this transitional period. At the end of it, they pass through the ritual of graduation, marking their initial entrance into adulthood which is later sealed by attaining a career, purchasing a home, and settling down. Individuals living within the U. S. on a Green Card face similar circumstances†they are not fully American citizens, yet they benefit from the rights of living amongst Americans. Once they pass through the naturalization process, a liminal transition period in itself, they are eventually accepted and invited to a formal ceremony where they take an oath to become an American citizen, receive certificate, and take their place as fellow Americans, officially ending the luminal period of the naturalization process.

John Buford in the Civil War

John Buford in the Civil War Major General John Buford was a noted cavalry officer in the Union Army during the Civil War. Though from a slave-holding family in Kentucky, he elected to remain loyal to the Union when fighting began in 1861. Buford distinguished himself at the Second Battle of Manassas and later held several important cavalry positions in the Army of the Potomac. He is best remembered for the role he played during the early phases of the Battle of Gettysburg. Arriving in the town, his division held critical high ground north and ensured that the Army of the Potomac possessed the critical hills south of Gettysburg. Early Life John Buford was born March 4, 1826, near Versailles, KY and was the first son of John and Anne Bannister Buford. In 1835, his mother died from cholera and the family moved to Rock Island, IL. Descended from a long line of military men, the young Buford soon proved himself a skilled rider and a gifted marksmen. At the age of fifteen, he traveled to Cincinnati to work with his older half-brother on an Army Corps of Engineers project on the Licking River. While there, he attended Cincinnati College before expressing a desire to attend West Point. After year at Knox College, he was accepted to the academy in 1844. Fast Facts: Major General John Buford Rank: GeneralService: US/Union ArmyNickname: Old SteadfastBorn: March 4, 1826 in Woodford County, KYDied: December 16, 1863 in Washington, DCParents: John and Anne Bannister BufordSpouse: Martha (Pattie) McDowell DukeConflicts: Civil WarKnown For: Battle of Antietam, Battle of Fredericksburg, Battle of Chancellorsville, Brandy Station, and Battle of Gettysburg. Becoming a Soldier Arriving at West Point, Buford proved himself a competent and determined student. Pressing through the course of study, he graduated 16th of 38 in the Class of 1848. Requesting service in the cavalry, Buford was commissioned into the First Dragoons as a brevet second lieutenant. His stay with the regiment was brief as he was soon transferred to the newly-formed Second Dragoons in 1849. Serving on the frontier, Buford took part in several campaigns against the Indians and was appointed regimental quartermaster in 1855. The following year he distinguished himself at the Battle of Ash Hollow against the Sioux. After aiding in peace-keeping efforts during the Bleeding Kansas crisis, Buford took part in the Mormon Expedition under Colonel Albert S. Johnston. Posted to Fort Crittenden, UT in 1859, Buford, now a captain, studied the works of military theorists, such as John Watts de Peyster, who advocated for replacing the traditional line of battle with the skirmish line. He also became an adherent of the belief that cavalry should fight dismounted as mobile infantry rather than charge into battle. Buford was still at Fort Crittenden in 1861 when the Pony Express brought word of the attack on Fort Sumter. The Civil War Begins With the beginning of the Civil War, Buford was approached by the Governor of Kentucky regarding taking a commission to fight for the South. Though from a slave-holding family, Buford believed his duty was to the United States and flatly refused. Traveling east with his regiment, he reached Washington, DC and was appointed assistant inspector general with the rank of major in November 1861. Buford remained in this backwater post until Major General John Pope, a friend from the prewar army, rescued him in June 1862. Promoted to brigadier general, Buford was given command of the II Corps Cavalry Brigade in Popes Army of Virginia. That August, Buford was one of a few Union officers to distinguish themselves during the Second Manassas Campaign. In the weeks leading to the battle, Buford provided Pope with timely and vital intelligence. On August 30, as Union forces were collapsing at Second Manassas, Buford led his men in a desperate fight at Lewis Ford to buy Pope time to retreat. Personally leading a charge forward, he was wounded in the knee by a spent bullet. Though painful, it was not a serious injury.​​​ Army of the Potomac While he recovered, Buford was named Chief of Cavalry for Major General George McClellans Army of the Potomac. A largely administrative position, he was in this capacity at the Battle of Antietam in September 1862. Kept in his post by Major General Ambrose Burnside he was present at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13. In the wake of the defeat, Burnside was relieved and Major General Joseph Hooker took command of the army. Returning Buford to the field, Hooker gave him command of the Reserve Brigade, 1st Division, Cavalry Corps. Buford first saw action in his new command during the Chancellorsville Campaign as part Major General George Stonemans raid into Confederate territory. Though the raid itself failed to achieve its objectives, Buford performed well. A hands-on commander, Buford was often found near the front lines encouraging his men. Old Steadfast Recognized as one of the top cavalry commanders in either army, his comrades referred to him as Old Steadfast. With Stonemans failure, Hooker relieved the cavalry commander. While he considered the reliable, quiet Buford for the post, he instead selected the flashier Major General Alfred Pleasonton. Hooker later stated that he felt that made a mistake in overlooking Buford. As part of the reorganization of the Cavalry Corps, Buford was given command of the 1st Division. In this role, he commanded the right wing of Pleasontons attack on Major General J.E.B. Stuarts Confederate cavalry at Brandy Station on June 9, 1863. In a day-long fight, Bufords men succeeded in driving back the enemy before Pleasonton ordered a general withdrawal. In the following weeks, Bufords division provided key intelligence regarding Confederate movements north and frequently clashed with Confederate cavalry. Gettysburg Entering Gettysburg, PA on June 30, Buford realized that the high ground south of the town would be key in any battle fought in the area. Knowing that any combat involving his division would be a delaying action, he dismounted and posted his troopers on the low ridges north and northwest of town with the goal of buying time for the army to come up and occupy the heights. Attacked the next morning by Confederate forces, his outnumbered men fought a two and half hour holding action which allowed for Major General John Reynolds I Corps to arrive on the field. As the infantry took over the fight, Bufords men covered their flanks. On July 2, Bufords division patrolled the southern part of the battlefield before being withdrawn by Pleasanton. Bufords keen eye for terrain and tactical awareness on July 1 secured for the Union the position from which they would win the Battle of Gettysburg and turn the tide of the war. In the days following the Union victory, Bufords men pursued General Robert E. Lees army south as it withdrew to Virginia. Final Months Though only 37, Bufords relentless style of command was hard on his body and by mid-1863 he suffered severely from rheumatism. Though he frequently needed assistance mounting his horse, he often remained in the saddle all day. Buford continued to effectively lead the 1st Division through the fall and the inconclusive Union campaigns at Bristoe and Mine Run. On November 20, Buford was forced to leave the field due to an increasingly severe case of typhoid. This forced him to turn down an offer from Major General William Rosecrans to take over the Army of the Cumberlands cavalry. Traveling to Washington, Buford stayed at the home of George Stoneman. With his condition worsening, his former commander appealed to President Abraham Lincoln for a deathbed promotion to major general. Lincoln agreed and Buford was informed in his final hours. Around 2:00 PM on December 16, Buford died in the arms of his aide Captain Myles Keogh. Following a memorial service in Washington on December 20, Bufords body was transported to West Point for burial. Beloved by his men, the members of his former division contributed to have a large obelisk built over his grave in 1865.

What Are Enzymes What Do They Do

What Are Enzymes What Do They Do SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Cells are the building blocks of life. All living things have cells - from small, single-celled organisms like bacteria to large, multicellular organisms like humans. Cells have specific functions that help keep these varied creatures alive and kicking. In order to make these functions happen, chemical reactions occur within cells. Oftentimes, these chemical reactions are sped up by a special kind of protein called an enzyme. In this article, we’re going to answer a few questions: what are enzymes, what are enzymes made of, and what types of enzymes exist. What Are Enzymes? Enzymes are a special kind of protein that are found in the cells of living organisms. Enzymes are made up of long chains of amino acids that are held together by peptide bonds. Enzymes help with processes like digestion, blood clotting, and hormone production. They basically either catalyze (cause) or speed up chemical reactions that take place in the bodies of living things. Typically, enzymes are only responsible for one kind of chemical reaction. So, an enzyme that helps with digestion won’t also help with blood clotting. We need enzymes because they help us initiate chemical reactions. For every chemical reaction, a specific amount of energy needs to be applied to the reactants before the reaction can happen. Enzymes help make reactions happen. It’s kind of like they are the final push over the hill before you can get a ball to roll down it. What Are Enzymes Made Of? As I mentioned in the previous section, enzymes are made up of long chains of amino acids. Some enzymes are only made up of one chain of amino acids, while others are made up of many chains of amino acids. Each enzyme is made up of a unique chain of amino acids (e.g., no two different types of enzymes have the same amino acid structure) and each enzyme also has its own unique shape. The 6 Types of Enzymes There are six main types of enzymes that occur in chemistry. Oxioreductases These types of enzymes help speed up oxidation and reduction reactions. Basically, they help move oxygen and hydrogen atoms from one place to another. Transferases These types of enzymes help groups of atoms transfer from molecule to molecule more quickly. Hydrolases These types of enzymes use water to break up single bonds between molecules. Many digestive enzymes are hydrolases and do things like break peptide bonds in proteins. Lyases Lyases are similar to hydrolases - they break up or form molecular bonds. Unlike hydrolases, they don’t use water as part of their reaction. Isomerases These types of enzymes speed up isomerization reactions. They rearrange the atoms of a reactant to form an isomer (a molecule with the same chemical formula, but different arrange of atoms than the original reactant). Ligases Ligases enhance the rate of joining of two molecules by using the energy obtained from the breakdown of ATP. How Different Types of Enzymes Work in the Body There are different types of enzymes in the body that can broadly be classified into metabolic, digestive, and food enzymes. Metabolic enzymes are responsible for reactions related to detoxification and energy production. Many of these enzymes occur in the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Metabolic enzymes help us use what we get from food (e.g., protein, fat, and carbohydrates) to make sure that our cells are working, clean, and healthy. Digestive enzymes help break down the foods we eat and convert them into energy. An example of these types of enzymes is the enzyme amylase, which breaks down starch into simple sugars.The three most importantdigestive enzymesare protease, amylase, and lipase, which digest protein, carbohydrate, and fat, respectively. Food enzymes aren’t naturally present in the body - we get them from the food we eat or from supplements. An example of a food enzyme is cellulase - we use cellulase to digest fibers, but it’s not produced in the body. We have to get it from the foods we eat. Food enzymes help digestive enzymes do their job and break down what we consume. Here are a few more types of enzymespresent in our body and what they do. Lactase: breaks down lactose, the complex sugar in milk products. Lactose-intolerant people don't have enough of this enzyme. Pectinase: breaks down pectin-rich foods such as citrus fruits, apples, carrots, potatoes, beets, and tomatoes. Bromelain: breaks down food protein into smaller peptones by hydrolysis; helps the body to fight cancer, improves circulation, and treats inflammation. Papain: aids the body in digestion. Catalase: breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Plays an important role in immune function. Enzyme Definition: Key Takeaways Enzymes are an important kind of protein that help us do many things, including: Break down food into energy Detoxify parts of our body Form new bonds between molecules Enzymes are made of chains of proteins called amino acids. Some of them are naturally occurring in the human body and others we need to consume through food. What's Next? Writing a research paper for school but not sure what to write about? Our guide to research paper topics has over 100 topics in ten categories so you can be sure to find the perfect topic for you. Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius? We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa). Are you studying clouds in your science class? Get help identifying the different types of clouds with our expert guide.

Rehabilitation Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rehabilitation Paper - Essay Example While referring back to the origin of the rehabilitation of the prisoners, it was the enactment of the Penitentiary Act in 1779 by British government that introduced the custom of rehabilitation of the prisoners and criminals. Thereafter, evidently imprisonment emerged as a form of correction rather than punishment. The technique and mode of rehabilitation varies according to the nature and type of offence committed. The prisoners are given educational as well as vocational training to learn various skills so that they can use it outside the prison once their term of imprisonment is over; and such rehabilitation takes place both inside the prison and outside the premises as well (Prison rehabilitation, n.d.). In the American prisons, rehabilitations found to be an effective mode of minimizing stress, aggression, and mental disorders amongst the prisoners. Studies prove that the prison inmates who learned rehabilitation techniques and participated in training activities were reformed and the number of those who returned to prison shrank to 30-35% which was far greater than other kinds of measures adopted to reduce the animosity among the inmates. The rehabilitation programs conducted outside the prison premises help to bring down over crowding in prisons. The vocation training they received made them competent to live the rest of their life without being dependant on others. Probation and parole are two means available for the prisoners to get out of their confinements and enjoy the fragments of freedom for a limited period. Probation and parole are more or less similar in function but are connected to different sections of the criminal justice system. Probation is generally imposed in lieu of jail incarceration and is increasingly being used in California as a tool to reduce jail crowding in a wide variety of situations. As per the Probation Law of 1976, (cited in Sangco, 1995) probation can be defined as a court-imposed approval that envisages to releases a co nvicted offender into the society under a conditional suspended sentence; and this practice is due to the assumption that all the criminals are not dangerous and they will rightly react to the treatments. Usually probation is given to an offender whose conduct and behavior is amicable in the prison premises (p. 1). When the term of his probation is over, he is asked to come back to the prison for the rest of his punishment. During the probation, if the offender proves himself fit for a social life, he may also get negotiation in his imprisonment. On the other hand, parole is a conditional release from state prison by the Department of Corrections. It is the early release from prison or jail under certain conditions and under strict supervision when a portion of the sentence has been completed. The practices of parole envisage that the offender has articulated his assent to abide by the rules and regulations of the prison environment and also shows respect and assistance to the socia l norms and practices. In this case also he has to come back to the prison once the stipulated days are over. As everyone knows, people are not born as criminals but it is the circumstances that make them commit offences. Probation and parole have great importance in this regard. A person who has committed murder on the pressure of

United States and the International Criminal Court Research Paper

United States and the International Criminal Court - Research Paper Example Introduction The international criminal court is the first permanent, external body of judiciary capable of prosecuting international cases and providing compensation to humanitarian case, (Khin, 2009). The purpose of international criminal court is to prosecute grave felonies against humanity irrespective of their perpetuators and judge suspects for intensive infringement of human rights, including those crimes executed during military struggles. Discussion International criminal court’s goals The key objective of international criminal court is to bring to justice and hold responsible the perpetrators of serious felonies against humankind such as felonies against civilians, genocide and grave war conflicts, (Lizardo, 2008). International Criminal Court aims to foster peace and fairness. The fundamental objective of the UN is to ensure universal honor of human rights and essential freedoms for people all over the world. In this perspective, few issues are of prodigious significance than the struggle against impunity and the fight for fairness and peace and people’s rights in disputed environment of the modern world. The creation of International Criminal Court is viewed as an imperative step forward, (Morris & Duke University, 2001). The ICC is labeled the missing link of the international lawful system to attain justice for humankind. The ICC addresses only issues among nations, not individuals. Without ICC for redressing individual responsibility as a strategy for enforcement, certain acts of grave human rights infringements and genocide will go scot-free. ICC aim at countering impunity and halting disputes. In conditions like those involving tribal conflict, violence calls for more violence, for instance one slaughter begets another slaughter. The surety that some war crime instigators can be judged in justice courts serves as a warning and increases the possibility of ending the conflict, (Candelaria & Naval Postgraduate School, 2003). The US attitude toward joining the ICC While the United States shows persistent loyalty to the expansion of international humanitarian policy, (subject to the present deteriorating acceptance of international law), this is mainly associated to the issue of the recent research. Although the United States accepts the development of overall applicable laws for management of armed dispute, the nation is highly reluctant to support the issue of the validity of the utilization of armed force by the United States t o lawful control, (Sewall & Kaysen, 2000). Whereas the Hague conferences of peace did not address the ICC issue, they failed also to consider the establishment of an ICC for managing conflicts among states. The US delegation report demonstrated that even though the government of the United State was intensively in support of the international court, the nation was, together with other participating nations, unwilling to give in to forceful jurisdiction matters that characterized extensive national interest. Nevertheless, the United States supported the establishment of the Permanent Arbitration Court with it’s entirely consent oriented jurisdiction, partly because of its critical role in the international jurisprudence development, (Lizardo, 2008). The Americans view of the ICC is connected to both local and external view of American leadership legitimacy. Scholars have documented about the origins and significance of soft

Alexander Hamilton Essay Example for Free

Alexander Hamilton Essay I consider Napoleon, Fox, and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton. He divined Europe. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand. So begins the biography of Alexander Hamilton on the web page from Revolution to Reconstruction.   Even   Jefferson was in awe of him as he told James Madison in 1795, Hamilton is really a colossus . . . without numbers, he is a host within himself. – quoted by De Coralis. Alexander Hamilton was born in about1757 on the Caribbean island of Nevis. He had no birth certificate so the exact date is disputed, but he always said it was in 1757. He was one of two sons born illegitimately to a French Huguenot mother by an irresponsible Scots father who was later to abandon his family. His mother died of yellow fever when he was only 13, having been imprisoned for adultery at the instigation of her husband , who then managed to successfully sue for all her meagre assets, leaving the two boys with nothing. All his life Hamilton was aware that people knew of his beginnings and discussed them behind his back. After his mother’s death he began to work as clerk to New Yorker Nicolas Cruger. In Cruger’s absence he ran the firm and so even as a teenager he came to learn and to manage the intricacies of international trade – something that was to be in his stead later. He also saw the dark side of trading – slavery, which he came to hate. Eventually he was to co-found an abolitionist society. Another mentor was clergyman Hugh Knox, who tutored him in both humanities and sciences. It was these mentors and other rich islanders who paid for him to study in New York at the then King’s College . (Now Columbia University). Their idea seems to have been that he study medicine and then return to set up practice. That was the theory, but the fact was that he never returned to the islands. He arrived in New York in 1773. In 1774 the first continental Congress met to decide what to do about what they saw as the tyrannical rule of England. Following the Boston Tea Party Hamilton travelled to Boston where he became convinced of the rights of the colonists. The newspapers were full of arguments for and against and Hamilton joined in when he wrote his first pamphlet A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress, According to   Lisa Marie de Coralis on the web page ‘From Revolution to Reconstruction’,   in 1769 Hamilton had written to a friend saying that what better way was there for a young man to change his station in life than in war. His argument was that in war it is one’s abilities rather than one’s background that counts. Considering his background it is hardly a surprising view. In the summer of 1776 the British fleet were sailing towards the city of New York and Hamilton responded quickly to a call for volunteers. He soon became captain of a group of artillerymen, even paying for their uniforms himself. He and his company fought alongside Washington and his men at Long Island and in other battles that year   His talents were recognised and he became, aged 20, aide-de-camp to General George Washington with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. It seems with hindsight that he made the right choice, for he had earlier turned down similar positions with other military leaders. He continued to be close to Washington for most of the time and was eventually among those who composed Washington’s farewell address in 1796. Valley Forge in the winter of 1777 -78 was an important time for Hamilton. Washington had some 9,000 men forced to scavenge for supplies, because of the inability of Congress to act on their behalf. All around men were starving and Hamilton realised that the   Americans would become a laughing stock if their government was seen to be unable to support its troops. There was to be an alliance with France and Hamilton, probably using the French he had leant from his mother, became interpreter. In the summer of 1779 rumours began to circulate that Hamilton was to lead a move to overthrow congress and install Washington as a dictator. Colonel John Brooks told Hamilton of these rumors adding that he had heard someone say Mr. Hamilton could be no ways interested in the defence of this country; and therefore, was most likely to pursue such a line of conduct as his great ambition dictated. His colleagues realised that the rumours were false. Hamilton was frustrated with Congress, no more. It   did make one thing plain though, Hamilton was, and always would be viewed as an outsider – a non-American, a major reason why, despite his massive abilities he is not included in the list of American Presidents. Other reasons given are his affair and the fact that his politics and reasoning were way above the heads of most Americans. Hamilton on the other hand firmly links himself with the American cause as when he wrote to Congressman Duane in 1780 â€Å"the defects of our present system, and the changes necessary to save us from ruin.    See chapter 8 ‘From Revolution to Reconstruction. In the letter he sees America as other nations would see her, with a weak congress, unable to fulfil its commitments. Much of the letter is about his financial plans for the country – not surprising for someone who was to become its treasurer. Washington was not known as a placid man. There were several spats and then in 1781, Washington felt that Hamilton was not respecting him and the two fell out. In April of that year he resigned as aide-de camp and went to stay with his new wife in Albany. From here he began his first essays on American government. The Continentalist, In 1781 he finally had his first command and victory at Yorktown. In January of 1782 his first child was born and two months later he resigned from the military, being appointed as Receiver of Taxes for New York. At the same time he began to study law, completing a three year course in just a few months. In 1782 he also became a congressman.   He is quoted by De Coralis as writing to Lafayette:- I have been employed for the last ten months in rocking the cradle and studying the art of fleecing my neighbours. I am now a Grave Counsellor   at law, and shall soon be a grand member of Congress. The Legislature   at their last session took it into their heads to name me pretty unanimously one of their delegates. As a lawyer he acted in many cases involving anti-loyalists laws. One of his most important cases ensured that federal laws were to be treated as supreme over those of individual states. Hamilton could be quite outspoken. In June 1780 he write to John Laurens describing   his fellow Americans as having ‘the passiveness of sheep †¦they are determined not to be free†¦I f we are saved France and Spain must save us.’ Eventually of course they rose to the occasion, though France did contribute to the success by not allowing Britain to make full use of its military and naval powers. Despite his American nationality he admired   the British system of government . He said when addressing congress in June 1787 ‘I believe the British government forms the best model the world ever produced.’ Hamilton is one of the anonymous contributors to the Constitution, the final text of which was drawn up by James Madison in July of 1787, according to Cohen and Major ( page 511). First of all Hamilton asked for a revision of the articles of confederation. He called them to arms saying as quoted in volume 4 of his papers:- Let Americans disdain to be instruments of European greatness! Let the thirteen states, bound together by strict and indissoluble union, concur in erecting one great American system. He signed the constitution in September 1787 and when Washington took on the presidency he knew that Hamilton was the best man to take on the country’s finance and he became the first, and perhaps the greatest, Secretary to the Treasury in 1789. He served in this post from 1789 to 1795, during which period he succeeded in restoring the country’s financial position. Early in his period of office he produced lengthy reports for congress about what the country needed financially including a system of taxation and funding of the national debt. The report controversially included the need for a national bank, an idea that Washington for one did not at first approve of. In 1792 there was a stock market panic and from this time on Hamilton came under attack for his policies. In 1804 there was to be an election. During the run up Hamilton, then leader of the Federalist party and famous for arguing for freedom of speech, was heard , on more than one occasion, to be vilifying Aaron Burr, the Republican leader, vice-president and a long time enemy. He had already come out heavily against Burr in the press. Burr demanded satisfaction in the form of a duel, and despite the fact that his beloved son had died in a duel, Hamilton, after the interchange of several letters, finally conceded. It was his eleventh and last duel. Hamilton fired firs t and missed. Burr’s first shot, hit Hamilton in lower abdomen, paralysed him and he died at home the following day, having confessed to hi s doctor that he had had no intention of hitting Burr. He died   leaving a wife, seven children and a mountain of debts, having frequently undercharged clients, subsidised newspapers and having refused an army pension. The financial genius had failed to provide for himself. Neither man benefited as Burr was indicted for murder, though duelling was not outlawed in New Jersey, and though later acquitted, Burr’s political career was over, as of course was Hamilton’s. Bibliography Crystal, D. editor, The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995 Hamilton,A. Address to the Constitutional Congress, 11th June 1787, quoted by Cohen,M. and Major,J. in History in Quotations, Cassell, London ,2004. Hamilton, A., The Papers of Alexander Hamilton vol2 (1961) pages 347-8, volume 4,   page 345. Electronic Sources De Coralis, L.M. From Revolution to Reconstruction, Biography of Alexander Hamilton found 2nd June 2007   http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/B/hamilton/hamilxx.htm

My Grandmother: A Powerful Woman Essay -- Personal Narrative

My Grandmother: A Powerful Woman Stella Stefanides was born fifty-four years ago in a small village by the Greek-Bulgarian border. Her life reads like a fictional story about deprivation, loss, love and hardships. This woman, whom I am referring to happens to be my grandmother. Her life is truly inspiring because she has overcome many difficulties and continues to be the glue that holds my family together. Stella was born in the time of the civil war in Greece. Her parents had many babies but they would all die after being removed from their mothers’ womb, which was very common at the time due to the lack of medical assistance. After dealing with the death of five babies, Theano, Stella's mom, was convinced that her dreams of having children were never to be realized. Even as a baby, Stella was a fighter. She fought for her little life and won. That's where she got her name "Stiliani," which means strong in Greek. That name truly captures the essence of her. Growing up was hard. Dealing with the war, the conflicts, the poverty, Stella, just like any other child, had to work. Because she is a female, school was not a priority. Although she wanted to help her family, she insisted on going to school. Craving to learn something new, to explore the world beyond her village borders; she told her parents that she would never leave school. She was willing and able to do both. They agree d, as long as it wouldn't interfere with her work. Deep down inside, her parents were happy that they had a headstrong, smart daughter. School and work weren't easy for Stella. Adding to the picture was a new brother, Savva. Taking care of him while her parents were at the fields became her responsibility. The responsibilities of school, work, takin... ...oss and makes all the decisions. Every customer and community member knows and loves "Mamma Stella." She listens, smiles and is always ready with a kind word and a hug. She yells when you don't finish your food and is generous with goods she bakes in her kitchen. Stella is an individual who fully embodies the "American Dream." She has had to fight to get where she is and she is passionate about staying there. Her family always comes first and their problems are hers. Stella is admired by many for her love, strength and fierce determination. These qualities were given to her so that she would make a difference in people's lives. She has taken those tools in hand and successfully crafted an amazing life for herself and her family. I am honored and lucky that Grandma Stella is a part of my life. She inspires me to achieve great things. I am who I am because of her.

Blaise Thomas “Tom” Golisano Essay

Blaise Thomas â€Å"Tom† Golisano is the founder of Paychex, the second-largest payroll processor in the United States. He also owns the Buffalo Sabres hockey team. He ran for governor of New York in 1994, 1998, and 2002. He lost all three elections but surprisingly defeated incumbent New York Governor George Pataki in the hotly contested 2002 elections. The founder of Paychex built a high-performing organization on an unconventional premise at the time: Hire people with the right attitude and then teach them the skills to do the job. But rapid growth in the 1990s showed Paychex that it needed a more systematic approach to reliably execute this philosophy throughout its geographically dispersed operations, especially at the important front line of customer service. The resulting solution  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  one that includes more sophisticated hiring practices, more extensive training and development, and multiple reinforcement mechanisms  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  still serves the company well today. He stands for good government, political reform and fair play.   In January 31, 2006 he announced his decision to no longer run for public office due to personal and professional reasons.   He is involved in many business interests, and will continue to remain active in Paychex and other entrepreneurial ventures.   He also said he will continue his philanthropic activity. He is still committed to the economic development of New York, as well as promoting responsible government. He has received many awards for his prowess in business: David T. Kearns Medal of Distinction – recognizing significant achievements in business, public service and education, by the University of Rochester’s William E. Simon Graduate School of Business Administration Rochester Business Hall of Fame (2001) The 1987 Herbert W. VandenBrul Entrepreneurial Award, presented by Rochester Institute of Technology’s College of Business â€Å"Master Entrepreneur† award in Ernst & Young’s Entrepreneur of the Year awards competition for Western New York Humanitarian of the Year Award, presented by the Boy’s Town of Italy, and the Commerce and Industry Award of the Rochester Chamber of Commerce. Outstanding Alumni Award from the American Association of Community Colleges He has been actively involved in a great deal of charitable work. In 1984, he founded the B. Thomas Golisano Foundation. His foundation awards grants to organizations dedicated to providing opportunities for those with disabilities and offering support to their families. In 2002, The University of Rochester re-named their pediatric hospital Golisano Children’s Hospital where he donated $14 million in March 6, 2006 as well as $6 million to Bishop Kearney High School and Our Lady of Mercy. Reference: Edited by Investor’s Business Daily. â€Å"Profiles in Business Success 51 Top Leaders and How They Achieved Greatness.†. New York: McGraw-Hill p. 50. Retrieved from the web:   http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Golisano   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     http://www.golisano.com http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgin/abstract/109792492/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&RETRY=0

Vodafone AirTouch’s bid for Mannesmann

First of all, one has to mention that it is always difficult to evaluate a company. There is no single measure/calculation who can give you the valuation of a company. The value of a company can be different for every single human being. For instance, Vodafone Air Touch will try to calculate a very low valuation of the company because it wants to pay as less as possible, and Mannesmann a very high valuation, because it wants to get as much money as possible. As a result, it often depends on the interest of the different persons who evaluate a company. In October 1999, Mannesmann offered shares around 157. â‚ ¬. This was before the acquisition of Orange PLC, a competitor of Vodafone Air Touch in the UK market. After the acquisition, Vodafone offered 266â‚ ¬ per share, 68% more than the 157. 8â‚ ¬ per share Mannesmann offered few weeks before. Despite, this very high premium, Mannesmann’s CEO evaluated his company 350â‚ ¬ per share. Here in this case, I think that the main reason for this high price differences is that with time, Mannesmann’s bargaining position changed. In the beginning, their position was not as strong as in the end when they achieved to acquire Orange Plc, a telecommunication company in the U. K. which was growing faster than Vodafone. As a result, Mannesmann became a stronger competitor for Vodafone and Mannesmann’s CEO knew that. As a consequence, he increased the valuation of his company. The reason why for instance an analyst from Julius Baar valuated Mannesmann between 250â‚ ¬ and 350â‚ ¬ per share and many other analysts between 174â‚ ¬ and 250â‚ ¬ per share may have some reasons. The main reason is that, as anticipated before, it is very difficult to evaluate a company. Furthermore, it is even more difficult to evaluate how many synergies Vodafone Air Touch would benefit from this takeover. So it is very difficult to evaluate how much this Mannesmann takeover could be worth for Vodafone Air Touch. Moreover, one has to check which analysts own stocks of Mannesmann or Vodafone because this may also influence the different evaluations. (2) In your opinion, in general, when a company is the target of a hostile takeover bid, who should decide whether the terms and conditions of this bid are acceptable? The Chief Executive Officer (or the equivalent) of the target company? Or its Chairperson (if another person than the CEO)? Its board of directors? Its shareholders ? If the shareholders, how practically should they make their decision? In my opinion, only the shareholders should take this type of decision. They are the one who own the company, and they should decide if they accept the takeover bid or not. If 50 % + X agree with the bid price, then the takeover should take place. Of course, before taking the decision, they should listen to the opinion of the CEO, the Chairperson, some analysts, as well as the Board of Directors. However, in my opinion, none of these key persons should take part of the decision making process. In my opinion, the shareholders are the one who own the company, and they should decide what should happen with their investment. For instance, let us assume the employees would take part of decision making process. Then, in most of the cases, the employees would vote against a take over, because they fear about their jobs. They would never take a neutral decision, but a decision which is the best for them, not caring about the fact that the shareholders loose a high premium. They, as well as the trade unions, would vote against an takeover because they fear for the jobs. However, they never think about the fact, that if the company is not taken over, the company who made a mid remains a competitor. And this competitor could increase its market share in spite of the smaller company that did not accept the takeover. And in this case, the employees of the smaller company would even risk to loose more jobs. The CEO and the the Chairperson should never take this type of decisions. Because, they are only in charge of the operations of the company, but they do not own the company. As a result, they should not decide about the matter. 3) In the case of the Vodafone AirTouch bid for Mannesmann, who should have made the decision ? (Please take into account the fact that Mannesmann had two boards, the supervisory board, and the management board) What do you think of the sentence in the fourth paragraph of page 5 of the case: â€Å"Esser rejected the offer on the grounds that it was inadequate† ? As stated before the shareholders should have taken this de cision. They own the company and if 50 % + X is in favour of Vodadone AirTouch’s bid, then the company should accept the bid. Let’s assume that you invested 50 000 â‚ ¬ in Mannesmann’s shares and now somebody is offering you 80 000 â‚ ¬ for the shares. Then you should decide if you accept this money, or if you think that your shares are much worthier in some months/years. In that case you vote against the hostile takeover. I think that this system makes the decision making also very rapid and efficient. In fact, if one would also ask the employees, some analysts and so on, then the decision making process would be much longer. As a result, I think that the shareholders should take the decision, after having listened to the different opinions of the CEO, employees, analysts,.. However, I think it inacceptable that Esser as the CEO of the company, who does not own many shares, rejects the offer in the name of all the investors. This cannot be tolerated. In fact, he is like an employee of Meeresmann, he does not own the company, and he should take the best decisions for his shareholders who in some way gave him this job as CEO. As a result, I think that he cannot take the decision to refuse a bid without having spoken with any shareholder of the company. This is not a personal decision, but a decision which influences all the stakeholders of the company. It is unacceptable that he takes the decision on behalf of all the share- and stakeholders. (4) If you had been a shareholder of Mannesmann on December 17, 1999, what would you have liked to say to Klaus Esser ? What would you have like to say to Chris Gent ? If you had had the opportunity to vote to accept or not Vodafone's bid, how would you have voted (please ignore the subsequent events not described in the case) ? As a shareholder of Mannesmann, I would liked to ask him why he refused an offer of 266â‚ ¬ per share, which is a premium of 72. 2 % compared to Mannesmann’s closing price on October 18th. I would blame him for not having asked the shareholder what they thought about the offer. He took a decision about something which did not own him, but where I owned a fraction. Finally, I would ask him if he could guarantee me that the share price of Meeresmann would be as high as the Vodafone AirTouch’s offer in the future. Only if this is the case, the Esser would be partly excused. I mention only partly, because even if he thinks that the share price of Meeresmann will be higher in the near future, then he should have explained that to the shareholders. And then, if the majority of the shareholders would agree, then he could refuse the offer. As a shareholder of Mannesmann, I would ask him what would be the strategy of Vodafone AirTouch after the acquisition of Meeresmann. This is important to me, because I will have to make an important decision if the hostile takeover is agreed: either I keep the Vodafone shares or I sell all the shares the day of the take over. In that way, I would gild the premium. I would definitely have accepted the deal. During that time, it was quite sure that a consolidation of the telecommunication market would happen. As a result, I think that it would have been very difficult for Meeresmann, as one of the smaller companies, to survive in that market environment. Furthermore, the offered premium was so high, that I could not deny this offer.

Save an Endangered Species Classroom Campaign

Save an Endangered Species Classroom Campaign In this Lesson Plan, students aged 5–8 are provided a way to gain a deeper understanding of how human activities affect the survival of other species on earth. In the space of two or three class periods, student groups will develop advertising campaigns to save endangered species. Background Species become endangered and go extinct for many complex reasons, but some of the primary causes are easy to pin down. Prepare for the lesson by considering five major causes of species decline: 1. Habitat Destruction Habitat destruction is the most critical factor affecting the endangerment of species. As more people populate the planet, human activities destroy more wild habitats and pollute the natural landscape. These actions kill some species outright and push others into areas where they cant find the food and shelter they need to survive. Often, when one animal suffers from human encroachment, it affects many other species in its food web, so more than one species population begins to decline. 2. Introduction of Exotic Species An exotic species is an animal, plant, or insect that is transplanted, or introduced, to a place where it did not evolve naturally. Exotic species often have a predatory or competitive advantage over native species, which have been a part of a particular biological environment for centuries. Even though native species are well adapted to their surroundings, they may not be able to deal with species that closely compete with them for food or hunt in ways that native species have not developed defenses against. As a result, native species either cannot find enough food to survive or are killed in such numbers as to endanger survival as a species. 3. Illegal Hunting Species all over the world are hunted illegally (also known as poaching). When hunters ignore governmental rules that regulate the number of animals that should be hunted, they reduce populations to the point that species become endangered. 4. Legal Exploitation Even legal hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild species can lead to population reductions that force species to become endangered. 5. Natural Causes Extinction is a natural biological process that has been a part of species evolution since the beginning of time, long before humans were a part of the worlds biota. Natural factors such as overspecialization, competition, climate change, or catastrophic events like volcanic eruptions and earthquakes have driven species to endangerment and extinction. Student Discussion Get students focused on endangered species and initiate a thoughtful discussion with a few questions, such as: What does it mean for a species to be endangered?Do you know of any animals or plants that are endangered (or have gone extinct)?Can you think of reasons why species become endangered?Do you see activities in your local area that could affect animal or plant species in a negative way?Does it matter that species decline or go extinct?How might one species extinction affect other species (including humans)?How can society change behaviors to help species recover?How can one person make a difference? Gearing Up Divide the class into groups of two to four students. Provide each group with poster board, art supplies, and magazines that feature photos of endangered species (National Geographic, Ranger Rick, National Wildlife, etc.). To make presentation boards visually exciting, encourage students to use bold headings, drawings, photo collages, and creative touches. Artistic/drawing talent is not part of the criteria, but its important that students use their individual creative strengths to produce an engaging campaign. Research Assign an endangered species to each group or have students draw a species from a hat. You can find endangered species ideas at ARKive. Groups will spend one class period (and optional homework time) researching their species using the internet, books, and magazines. Focal points include: Species nameGeographic location (maps make good visuals)Number of individuals left in the wildHabitat and diet informationThreats to this species and its environmentWhy is this species important/interesting/worth saving? Conservation efforts that are helping to protect this species in the wild (are these animals being captivity bred in zoos?) Students will then determine a course of action to help save their species and develop an advertising campaign to gain support for their cause. Strategies might include: Fundraising to purchase and restore habitat (suggest innovative approaches like a comedy tour, a  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹film festival, a prize giveaway, an  endangered species adoption program, a movie about the cause)Petitions and appeals to legislatorsA proposed ban on an activity that harms their speciesA captive breeding and wild release programAn appeal to get celebrities behind the cause Campaign Presentations Campaigns will be shared with the class in the form of a poster and persuasive verbal presentation. Students will organize their research on posters with photos, drawings, maps, and other related graphics. Remind students that effective advertising captures attention, and unique approaches are encouraged when it comes to presenting a species plight. Humor is a great tactic to engage an audience, and shocking or sad stories elicit peoples emotions. The goal of each groups campaign is to persuade their audience (the class) to care about a particular species and motivate them to climb aboard the conservation effort. After all of the campaigns have been presented, consider holding a class vote to determine which presentation was the most persuasive.

Black Footed Ferret

Black Footed Ferret Essay In the past three decades very few endangered species have been restored toviable populations. The black footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) was believed tobe the most endangered mammal in the united states. It is a small mink sizedcarnivore of the Great plains and intermountain basins The ferrets appear to beobligatory predators on the prairie dogs and once occupied a range essentiallyidentical to that of the prairie dogs. They prey on them and also use theirburrows for shelter and nesting. The prairie dogs are considered agriculturalpests and competitors with livestock since white settlement first began in theAmerican west. Large scale rodent control programs were implemented by the stateand federal governments. They drastically reduced the population of prairie dogs(and other species related to the prairie dog ecosystem) through trapping,gassing and poisoning. These poisoning programs were considered a major cause ofthe ferrets demise. But, the main cause was the loss of the ferrets preybase and appropriate habitat. Their remaining habitat was fragmented thusleaving the ferret population vulnerable to extinction from various causesincluding inability to find mates, inbreeding depression, environmental events,and disease of ferrets and their prey. The ferrets were believed to be extinctin 1974, but in 1981 a ferret was discovered in Meeteetsee, Wyoming when a ranchdog killed an unusual animal eating from its food dish and the rancher took thecarcass to a knowledgeable taxidermist. This was viewed as a rare chance torecover the species. In 1985, a catastrophic disease struck the small ferretpopulation, and most remaining animals were taken into captivity. Captivebreeding was initiated, and reintroduction into the wild from the captivepopulation began in 1991. The ferret is just one of more than 900 species listedunder the Endangered Species act as either threatened or endangered. Over threethousand more species wait on a list of candidates for such status, but in the1980s over thirty-four species went extinct while on the waiting list (Cohn,1993). Is the ferret program representative of the national effort to recoverspecies? Main body: United States policy on endangered species, including theferret and hundreds of other plants and animals, is codified in the 1973Endangered Species act (ESA ,as amended, U.S. Congress 1983, Bean 1991) . Thispiece of legislation sets a national goal the prevention of any furtherextinction and the restoration of species currently threatened with extinction. The ESA is a highly popular piece of legislature because no one would advocatethe killing of an entire species. But the simple goal of saving a species cloaksa complicated process. The ferret case is a good illustration of how the ESA isactually outfitted, how and state officials and others tackle the complex workof restoring species, and how problems come about in nearly all recovery plans. In short, the ferret rescue is a measure of how the ESA really works. Afterfinding the small population in Wyoming, in 1981, one might expect a well ledand smoothly coordinated recovery effort to have been quickly organized to savea species that had been recognized as Americas most endangered mammal. Manyuniversities, conservation organizations, state and federal agencies, and localpeople were willing to help. Collectively they command substantial resources,not only in terms of money: national and international expertise on populationgenetics and small population management, experienced field researchers, testedbreeding facilities, and support staffs from major zoos. All that was needed forthe ferrets to be restored swiftly, professionally, and efficiently was a meansto bring the talent together in a productive well organized program. Under theESA, the task of organizing recovery efforts is the responsibility of thefederal government acting through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and theU.S. National Marine Fisheries Service. Federal officials had numerous optionsopen to them at the start of the ferret program, one of which was to functionlike administrators of a large hospital, pulling together a world-classprofessional team, supporting the necessary work with adequate funding,equipment and facilities, and relying on the teams judgment to bring aboutthe patients recovery. But this model was not selected. The ferret programwas organized and operated very differently. Section 6 of the ESA requires thatstates be involved to the maximum extent practicable. Early in 1982,the federal government turned the main responsibility for ferret restorationover to the state of Wyoming. Almost immediately, problems began to emerge. READ: Prostitution EssayThrough a formal resolution, the American Society of mammologists (1986:786)urged the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Wyoming Fish and Game department,and other state wildlife departments, and numerous and numerous interestedconservation groups to make broader recovery efforts than those exhibitedby the current program. Miller, Reading, and Forest (Miller et al.1996:208)identify the FWS as the national agent responsible for maintaining professionalrestoration programs. It is our contention, they write, thatRegion 6, of the FWS, failed to make the ferret recovery a national program. Itmay have been easiest for Region 6 to acuiesence to Wyomings agenda in theshort term, but the strategy has probably impaired the recovery in the long run. People, or agencies, in a position to improve conservation should not simplythrow money at a problem, but invest in time and attention as well. TheWyoming Game and Fish department was interested in doing whatever was necessaryto insure that the ferrets be returned to the wild in Wyoming first, whether ornot Wyoming was the best place to introduce them. There could have been sites inother states which were better suited for ferret reintroduction, but thejealousy of the Wyoming Game and Fish department prevents them from consideringsuch an alternative. The Greater Yellowstone Coalition (1990) concluded thatstate-level concerns had taken precedence over national recovery issues. TheWilderness Society concluded that of the 495 species listed in 1988, only about16 (3.2 percent) are recovering. Another 18 listed species (3.6 percent) mayhave already been extinct. This is a record that fails to demonstrate the basicpromises of the act. The General Accounting Office (1992) added that of sixt eenspecies removed from the list, five were recovered, seven were extinct, and fourwere reclassified because of misinformation. Two federal audits of the ESAimplementation have been conducted. Reviews of the FWS endangered speciesprogram and found that the federal government did not maintain centralizedinformation needed to determine how well the overall program was operating. Required recovery plans have not been developed and approved for many species. In 16 recovery plans that were investigated in depth, nearly half of the taskslisted had not been undertaken even though the plans had been approved, onaverage, more than four years earlier. Fws officials attributed this to shortageof funds, the inspector general of the Interior department has lambastedhis federal colleagues at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, charging that theymay be sending species to extinction (Holden1990). Conclusion: Thedestruction of other life forms because of the actions of people is a problemwith profound biological, ecological, economic, and ethical dimensions. We mustassume that a healthy biosphere is in the common interest of humanity. Appreciation of the fundamental importance and far-sightedness of the EndangeredSpecies Act and other biodiversity protection policies has grown over the lasttwo decades, but that has neither prevented nor appreciably slowed theextinction crisis. Around the globe, the problem of extinction is extreme andgrowing, with perhaps scores of species disappearing everyday. The ESA ispotentially a powerful tool to better the extinction crisis, and in many wayshas served as a global model. But despite its value both substantively andsymbolically, there are problems with it, as both the biological and politicaltrends of the past years attest. Implementation has fallen short of promise. Protecting species under the ESA is a long , complex process. Once species arerecognized as deserving of protection and are listed, conservation programs mustbe designed, approved, and then implemented. Almost four thousand species in theUnited States now wait to be afforded the basic protections of the ESA; severalhundred, many of them plants may already be extinct. Beyond the listing process,there are innumerable steps, activities and processes that make up the ESAimplementation. The extinction problem in the U.S. and the world is apparentlygrowing faster than practical policy responses can be generated to stop it. Theblack footed ferret was a good example for showing how there are problems withthe conservation process and limitations of conventional approaches. The ferretrestoration program was fraught with problems, which has added to its notorietyin the public eye and the scientific and conservation communities. If we are toimprove the policy-making process for conserving biodiv ersity, we mustacknowledge the problem openly, honestly, and realistically. We must turn ourknowledge of saving species and take turn it into more effective, more efficientconservation gains. In other words, we must reconstruct the endangered speciesrecovery process. READ: History of Solar Energy EssayBibliographyAmerican Society of Mammologists. 1986. Recovery andrestoration of the black footed ferret. Journal of mammology 67:786. Bean,M.J.1983. The evolution of national wildlife law. Prager, New York. Cohn,J.P.1993. Defenders of biodiversity. Government executive national journal,April:18-22 General accounting office. 1988. Endangered species: Managementimprovements could enhance recovery programs. GAO/RCED 89-5. GPO, Washington. Holden, C.1990. Ecology hero in the interior department. Science 250:620-621. Miller, B.J., R. Reading, C. Conway, J.A. Jackson, M.A. Hutchins, N. Snyder, S. Forest, J. Frazier, and S. Derricson. 1994. Improving endangered speciesprograms: Avoiding organizational pitfalls, tapping the resources, and addingaccountability. Environmental Management 18:637-645. Reffault, W. 1991. Theendangered species lists: Chronicles of extinction? P.77-75. Island Press,Washington.

Social group and classes history of inequality Essay

Social group and classes history of inequality - Essay Example Since many social constructs stem from such inequalities, a clear understanding of the different perspectives and theories of various philosophers associated with social inequalities is imperative to a student of sociology. This essay is an attempt in that direction. It shall explore the ideas of four modern day thinkers, viz. Karl Marx, Max Weber, W.E. B. Du Bois, W. M. Mills and F.D. Roosevelt. The essay shall compare and contrast the theories in their works, discussing the sources of inequality, social groups, the consequences of inequality, and social location of inequality in each. While Marx, has provided the broad and bigger structure of communism within which other philosophers have sculpted their own, much like the 'matrioshka', or the Russian nesting dolls (http://russian-crafts.com/nest.html), which has smaller replicas of itself, buried within it. However, there is a slight difference in that the philosophers have not made exact replicas of the Marx; they have rather focused on some individual aspects of the Marxian model, and added their own distinctive touch to it. Thus, the essay shall argue that, even though all the philosophers have all dealt with the subject of social inequality and p overty in modern capitalist societies like the US, they differ in the ways they have dealt with it. Karl Marx (1818-1883) was one of the few modern day philosophers who could come out with original analyses of social problems like poverty, and the inequalities in social classes. According to Marx, the origins of change and revolutions are all materialistic in nature, and all through the ages, one social system has always replaced the previous ones due to the inherent conflicts arising from the inequalities in the system, "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles" (Marx, CM 3). The feudal society has been replaced by the present day capitalist society or the 'bourgeois society'. The word 'bourgeoisie' stands of the 'modern capitalist' or the rich-moneyed section of the society. Capitalism, according to Marx, consists of both shared enterprise and unequal distribution of rewards. Therefore, the basic difference in the structure of economic production has changed the way we live, and gives rise to conflict. This is the source of struggle or 'conflict' - the tension, between the working class - the 'Proletariats' and the 'Bourgeoisie' (Marx, CM 3-5). While the former etched a living by selling their labor for 'wages', the latter who are the moneyed-capitalists; Marx differentiates between money and 'Capital' in his Economic Manuscripts thus "As soon as money is posited as exchange value which not merely makes itself independent of circulation (as in hoarding) but maintains itself inside it, it is no longer money, for money as such does not extend beyond the negative determination; it is capital" (Marx, EM I,14) and those who made use of such capital for their profit were 'capitalists.' Proprietors, owners of manufacturing industries exploited the former and ma de a profit from 'surpluses' of their labor. Latin American immigrants working on the orchards and construction projects in the US, being paid poor wages, without social security or insurance coverage, and their relatively rich contract companies, may be cited as a contemporary example of such exploitation. The